CU1513 & Food Essay

Children need to be in a positive environment because if the child spends their day in an effective designed environment, the child will be physically, socially, emotionally, and aesthetically nurtured. The environment can maximise their intellectual potential and provide a foundation for the development of their emotional security. A positive environment for children and young people must be a safe place to work in, so a number of legal health and safety requirements should be in place. Whatever the setting, policies and procedures guide the workplace. 2) In my work setting, we work within the care standards regulations by making sure the setting is a safe place to be in, and being hygienic, we have a sterilising unit which is used everyday, and also sterilise the plastic toys and make sure everything is cleaned well. We wear aprons and gloves whilst changing babies nappies, and to go around every morning and evening checking that nothings broken. We also give out daily sheets to give to the parent/carer at the end of the day, to tell them what they’ve had and what they’ve done during the day. The Special Needs Code of Practice is designed to help make effective decisions regarding children and young people with special educational needs, but this does not mean you can tell them exactly what to do in each individual case. A positive environment and routine teaches children how to behave with people in general, in my work setting the ages are 3-18 months, so the older babies might get an early understanding on how to be around people and how to be around one another. If the staff are positive and approachable, it could also help children to talk to staff more about any concerns they may have. Also it allows parents to talk to the staff more easily, and feel included and equal. 3) This is part of children’s learning about self care and personal hygiene. We can help them do this by encouraging them to wash their hands before and after eating, and also giving them a mirror which can help them too. In my work setting, ages 3-18 months, it is very different, as they’d need their nappies changed regularly to prevent infections and sores, and to also talk to the parent/carer about any allergies or skin conditions their child might have. We also talk to parents/carers about their child’s hair in case they have any allergies or conditions as they may require special products. And we will ask them to bring in hats, especially during Summer. Teeth are important too, as well as having healthy milk teeth, it encourages the healthy adult teeth. With older children, workers can encourage children to brush their own teeth in the morning and before bedtime with the guidance of the parent/carer. 4) Rest and exercise both play a crucial part in health and well being of children. Learning and memory are at there best in well rested children. Exercise is equally important, playing a vital role in physical health, which promotes muscle and bone strength. In my work setting we promote exercise by doing activities with them which can include dancing, going out to the outside play area or going for a walk to the park, and then when they get out of their prams, they explore and identify new things too. We encourage rest by doing certain activities which includes sitting down and reading books and putting them to bed after lunch time and if they are tired at any time throughout the day we will put them in a cot/pram. 5) The basic nutritional requirements include plenty of fruit and veg, which we should be having at least five portions of a variety everyday. In my work setting we encourage the children to eat fruit and veg everyday by giving a different variety at both snack times. Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta and other starchy foods, milk and dairy foods, and also some meat, fish and alternatives, also to have a small amounts of foods and drink which is high in fat or sugar, although this should be kept restricted to special occasion foods only. 6) When children come together at meal/snack time, they should be all eating the same food, however there can be special requirements. For example, children with chewing or digestive difficulties may need their food chopped or liquidized. Specific food additives may cause allergic reactions. And even cultural/religious preferences may restrict specific foods, as either a general rule, or certain times and holidays. Whoever cant eat meat for any reason, we give alternatives to the foods given. 7) Food is a common way for illness to spread, workers who are ill or have recently been ill can unknowingly contaminate foods which are prepared and served to the children. In childcare settings, food safety is everyone’s responsibility, any member of staff that comes in contact with the food should be familiar with safe food handling practices and all work places should have a food safety book. The National Childcare Accreditation Council (NCAC) provides national guidelines for childcare which covers all areas of care, which includes information on all aspects of quality childcare, including hygiene, communications, discipline, food and nutrition. Research time journal. 40 minutes on questions 1-4 30 minutes on questions 5-7

Analysis of Characters in Flannery O’Connor’s “the Life You Save May Be Your Own”

Laura Furdge Dr. McDaniels ENG 495 February 5, 2013 Analysis of Characters in Flannery O'Connor's â€Å"The Life You Save May Be Your Own† â€Å"The Life You Save May Be Your Own† is a short story written by the American author Flannery O'Connor. It is one of ten stories in her short story collection called A Good Man Is Hard to Find. In this Southern Gothic tale, we are introduced to a mother and her daughter as they sit on a porch in an impoverished country town. A man, Mr. Shiftlet, crosses their path and after a bit of conversation is offered a place to sleep and food to eat in exchange for fixing things around the house. He eventually is offered the daughter's hand in marriage, and accepts with the reward of getting a car. The two marry and the mother provides money for them to go on a weekend honeymoon. But, in an unexpected turn of events, at least 100 miles away from her home, Mr. Shiftlet leaves the girl sleeping and stranded at the counter of a breakfast restaurant. Feeling very guilty, he searches for a hitchhiker to pick up in an effort to right his wrong and finds a little boy that had just run away from home. Mr Shiftlet convinces the child to go back home to his mother and the story ends with him driving to Mobile. Flannery O'Connor does more than tell a humorous Gothic story with this piece of work; she uses the lives of Lucynell, Lucynell Jr, and Mr Shiftlet to illustrate the human condition and how we often put our morals to the side for our own selfish gain. Lucynell Crater is the retarded daughter of Mrs. Crater. She has a childlike mind and is unable to speak. She is a simple spirit and lacks comprehension of her surroundings. She ha[s] long pink-gold hair and eyes as blue as a peacock's neck†(O'Connor). She was almost thirty but could pass for 15 or 16 because of her innocence. She is almost entirely silent the whole story, yet she plays a major role in the events that take place throughout the story. Lucynell was a key player in this story because she was Mrs. Crater's only opportunity to get a son-in-law, and Mr. Shiftlets best opportunity to get a car. The story revolves around Mrs. Crater's attempts to get Mr. Shiftlet to want to marry Lucynell. She lies about Lucynell's age, brags on how she is able to do housework, and even makes sure that he knows she is innocent. All the while, Lucynell is totally oblivious to the things that are taking place around her. Lucynell is used as a symbol in this story; she is a representation of the rejected salvation for Mr. Shiftlet. Mr. Shiftlet (Shiftlet suggesting that he is a sketchy character or that he will eventually change) is immediately recognized as a â€Å"tramp† by Mrs. Crater as he walks up the road. His conversation leads the reader to believe that he is nothing but a con-man. O'Connor makes it apparent in Mr. Shiftlets speech that he knows exactly what to say in order to get what he wants. From the time he approached their porch, he was eying their car. He spoke as if he wanted to hang around because he wanted to be able to share their view of the sunset every morning, but it is apparent that he wants the car for himself in order to be free. Tom Shiftlet's inability to be truthful and honest about his intent creates a situation for him that could have been avoided. He hangs around the house, fixing things and even teaching Lucynell to speak. Because he is â€Å"a poor disabled friendless drifting man†(O'Connor) according to Mrs. Crater, and therefore there is no place in the world for such a man as he, it was assumed that he would marry her daughter, fulfilling her desperation for a son-in-law, and live out the rest of his life with the Craters. Because he went along with the assumption, he is in essence, forced to marry Lucynell and this leads to him abandoning her at the diner because he really did not want what he agreed to. Mrs. Lucynell Crater (the name Crater suggesting an empty space or hole, indicating that she is in want/need of something) is a toothless old widow. Her husband died 15 years ago, leaving her to take care of Lucynell and the farm by herself for the rest of her life. It makes sense that she would be so welcoming and trusting of a complete stranger. â€Å"O'Connor connects the Craters' lack of a man in the household to immobility and deterioration and Shiftlet presents a solution to both problems†(Arant). Though handicapped by the lack of one arm, Mrs. Crater believes Mr Shiftlet will be a great help around the house and decides to provide food and a place to sleep for him in exchange for his services. As the story progresses, Mrs. Crater's desperation for a son-in-law begins to show more clearly in her conversations with Mr. Shiftlet. She begins to use Lucynell as a bargaining tool as she offers him the car in exchange for marrying her daughter. She loses sight of the fact that Lucynell is not competent enough to enter into a marriage because her focus is gaining a son-in-law that could take care of the farm. This is a very immoral decision because her duty as a mother is first and most importantly to take care of and protect her child. Her decision to marry Lucynell off also speaks to the fact that she either does not understand the sacred nature of marriage or does not care at all about it. As stated earlier, Mrs. Crater is well aware of Mr. Shiftlets desire to obtain the vehicle that had been sitting up for years so she uses it to negotiate a marriage between him and Lucynell. Mr. Shiftlet and Mrs Crater agree that he would marry her and take her out on a weekend honeymoon. O'Connor makes it apparent that innocent Lucynell does not know what has taken place because she falls asleep on what ought to be the happiest day of her life. Lucynell was the saving grace for both Mr. Shiftlet and Mrs. Crater, but instead, just as the world rejects Christ's salvation, she was rejected and these two characters are damned to a life of loneliness and guilt. Lucynell was Mrs. Craters life before Mr. Shiftlet came along, and the fact that she was crying at the thought of Lucynell being gone for only two days proves that she is definitely going to suffer more if she never returns. As far as Mr. Shiftlet is concerned, Mrs. Crater trusted him with Lucynell, telling him â€Å"I wouldn't let no man have her but you because I seen you would do right. †(O'Connor) and he betrayed her trust. He abandoned his salvation, â€Å"he is on the run from grace; he longed for a car so that he could run faster and farther†(Rogers). He realizes that his actions were terrible and even after trying to redeem himself by picking up a hitchhiker he cries out to the Lord, â€Å"Break forth and wash the slime from this earth! † and the story ends with him attempting to outrun the approaching storm. A closer look at the characters in this story gives an accurate example of the human condition. The characters in most Southern Gothic stories are often decrepit, unsavory, poor and/or mentally ill. The authors use the extremities of the people in their stories to expose our internal mental condition as human beings. The purpose in doing so is to cause the reader to take a moment and examine their own lives. It makes one stop and think about how they may have acted in the situations presented in the stories and it gives them insight as to what could result from it. On the surface, the automobile and wedding in â€Å"The Life You Save May Be Your Own† seem to hold little to no importance. But from the beginning, it is clear that Mrs. Crater only wanted to keep Mr. Shiftlet around for the potential services that he could provide. He could have been her live-in carpenter as well as a husband for her daughter. At this point her daughter becomes an object instead of a human being. Even though Mr. Shiftlet pretends to be unconcerned with the money, he winds up asking about the car and even wants money for the wedding. Eventually, just like Mrs. Crater, he abandons Lucynell for the belief that a car would fulfill his needs. Through the approach of Mr. Shiftlet and Mrs. Crater in relation to their desire to gain the things they thought they needed in order to be happy, Flannery O'Connor reveals a world in which money or material things have become more important than people or even spiritual peace. Works CitedArant, Alison. â€Å"A Moral Intelligence†: Mental Disability and Eugenic Resistance in Welty's â€Å"Lily Daw and the Three Ladies† and O'Connor's â€Å"The Life You Save May Be Your Own. Southern Literary Journal 44. 2 (2012): 69-87. Academic Search Premier. Web 5 Feb 2013 Baym, Nina, Mary Loffelholz.â€Å"Flannery O'Connor's ‘The Life You Save May Be Your Own. † The Norton Anthology of American Literature. 7th ed. Vol. D. New York W. W. Norton ; Co. 2007. 2522-2529. Print.Rogers, Jonathan. â€Å"Flannery O'Connor Summer Reading Club, Week 2: ‘The Life You Save May Be Your Own'†. Jonathan-Rogers. com. 11 June 2012. WordPress. Web. 4 Feb 2013. .

Export and import Managment- sony- combating markets for PSPs Essay

Export and import Managment- sony- combating markets for PSPs - Essay Example The PSP was launched in the US with the difference of a few months after its launch in Japan because of various reasons. UK saw the official launch of the PSP nearly one year later but regardless of the delay retailers in Europe began to import PSPs from Japan and the US whilst keeping all the revenue for them self. Sony, in order to counter this took legal action against several importers in Europe demanding confiscation and monetary damage (as cited in CNET News. 2005). An online retail firm â€Å"EBL† stood up against Sony stating that Sony had inadequate trademarks regarding PSPs in Europe and that it only targeted smaller firms. Such a controversy created doubts regarding PSP’s official launch in Europe. Sony soon won the case and caused various retailers to put down the products off from their stores and websites. Nevertheless PSPs still were being traded in the gray markets while Sony waited for the UK High Court to declare a decision. To add up to Sony’s obstacles, hackers continuously tweaked the PSPs to run unauthorized games and software for which Sony has to tirelessly keep developing newer versions of the PSP and its firmware as well. Q1. E-commerce alone is the primary driver of the ever-growing gray market and counterfeit activity. Numerous online auctioning and trading websites remain unmonitored and controlled which further feeds the gray markets. Products like the PSP coming from their widely successful and popular parent product â€Å"PlayStation† undoubtedly would receive a vast number of consumers, many of which would be willing to accept higher prices to acquire it as early as possible. Adequate control over the company’s distribution network is amongst the vital weapons against gray markets. Large firms, given the resources available to them should carefully monitor how and where their products are traveling before finally reaching to its consumers. A strict distribution network involving detailed shipme nt tracking, authorized dealers, official labels/logos/etc would enable the manufacturer being completely aware of its products rotation in the market which would result in the prevention of leakages into the gray markets. Q2. An innovative product with a strong fan-following automatically results in a desire to acquire it. Sony officially launched the PSP in Japan earlier than in the major markets with time lags of a quarter or nearly one year. The huge number of demanding consumers in the international markets who were willing to pay more fueled the gray markets by giving higher profit margins to the importers. Sony did indeed launch the PSP a little early. Instead it should have manufactured enough quantities to cater to all the markets and launched in the Triad simultaneously. Sony rushed to launch the PSP because the gadgets were made available in the market even before the PSP was launched. Therefore Sony had to rush to introduce the PSP in order to avoid duplication and count erfeit and also to prevent the retailers from snatching Sony’s deserved revenues. Q3. The sale of PSPs in Europe was indeed a threat for Sony primarily because of the fact that it pushed the production capacity of Sony to the edge in order to cater to the â€Å"unofficial demand†. Before launching the PSP in UK, Sony ensured it had enough PSP units available to meet the demands

Seattle University Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Seattle University - Essay Example Even though this cannot be taken as the only criteria, it can provide a sound judgment on the character, behavior, creativity and capability of the student. A personal statement, in the words of the student mirrors his/her hopes, aptitudes, desires and ambitions. It will provide a clearer picture of the student's thought process and the university will be in a better position to understand and adjust the subject requirements. Seattle, being a university with a religious angle, has its own agenda and hopes to adjust its goals with student aspirations. Thus the student essay will act as a window to the diverse background, the educational path of the past, hopes of the future, individual preferences of the student. Essays tend to be very personal and will give a clearer picture of the student's chosen path. Course requirements and decisions on units depend on the background material and personal preferences supported by individualistic ambitions. Transcripts and their authenticity are important for all the universities, especially in the case of international students, who are required to provide certified transcripts of reports, marks cards, diplomas in addition to English language (TOEFL, IELTS, CLB etc.) proficiency certificates provided directly by the certifying agency. Financial deposits and bank proofs are additional for international students. In case of sponsored students, the government, through the Embassy has to confirm the sponsorship and additional declaration of finance is necessary if the funding is partial. Almost all the British qualifications are accepted in US universities, with Britain having an unassailable reputation in the field of education. Most of the variations in Indian educational system are accepted. All international students are expected to submit seale d recommendations from their Referees. "Seattle University thoroughly evaluates whether home schooled applicants have the necessary foundation of skills, background, and breadth to be successful students here" http://www.seattleu.edu/home/admission/undergraduate/apply_other.aspn and thus the Home School students are not ignored. Most universities have similar requirements. American University demands completed applications, essay of 500 words, statement of interest, academic records, two letters of recommendations, demonstrated leadership report or community service record, English proficiency, application fee and financial source. In recent years, American universities have become more and more inclusive in their outlook. "Ensure a university environment that is inclusive as well as diverse and that fosters a spirit of community among faculty, staff, and students by increasing the diversity of its faculty

Should Juvenile offenders be tried as adults Essay

Should Juvenile offenders be tried as adults - Essay Example e recent past, many young people in the early 20s have faced police arrests because they have violated the law in various ways by committing criminal offenses. Many arguments have been raised over the manner in which the state has been handling juvenile offenses (Bradley 135), with some saying that those juvenile courts and justice systems should be abolished and juvenile delinquents tried as adults. Rapists, murderers and other types of law offenders are being let to walk freely from jails after having served lenient and short sentences. These criminal offenders are children, who in most cases have not attained the necessary statutory age to face trial as adult members of the society. Juvenile delinquents often benefit from juvenile rights and court systems that emphasize that these groups of criminals need to be given second opportunities to reform and become useful members of the society. This has been making these minors enjoy freedom, walking freely in the streets and neighborhoods while committing extra crimes. For this reason, many people have been advocating the abolishing of juvenile rights and court systems so that these law offenders are tried and made to serve their sentences as adult members of the society. These people centre their arguments on the fact that giving stiff sentences and penalties to these minors is essential in preventing future offences. One of the arguments given in support of these claim is that the juvenile court systems is established on many false premises due to its purpose to prevent youths from the alleged consequences of their actions. For instance, young people that are released from these juvenile jails often end up engaging in repeat offenses, something that underlies the fact that the juvenile systems do not live to their expectations as reliable correctional facilities. Additionally, juvenile courts have been blamed for their inability to prevent juvenile violence. Abolishment of juvenile legal systems often requires

Reading summaries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Reading summaries - Essay Example It is noteworthy in this context that Fannin (2013) supposes such invention to empower C’elle and increase its monopolistic power within the global periphery to an extent, which might in future fuel ethical issues. From a general perspective, as Fannin (2013) argued, embryonic stem cells are the most â€Å"pluripotent† of human stem cells, which can develop specialized smaller range of cells for human body. Stem cells thus help to developed fat cells, muscle cells, cartilages and bone cells, skin cells and tendon cells, helping the human body to cure. As per Fannin (2013), owing to its immense medical significance, the industrial importance of stem cells is also not ignorable. With its high applicability in the medical field, the demand for the same is quite likely to increase in manifold in the near future. Under such circumstances, commercial enterprises, such as C’elle, may find it quite worthy of investment wherein a degree of monopolistic control on the pric e of the product shall offer greater financial as well as competitive returns (Fannin, 2013). Conclusively, Fannin (2013) reveals the dual effects of industrialising stem cell wherein ethical issues might erupt as a major

Operations Management Project- New Business Assignment

Operations Management Project- New Business - Assignment Example The vehicle industry can be regarded as the central theme for this business. Since the number of vehicles has increased in recent days, the requirement for parking as well as washing has also increased by a certain extent. The parking service as a business has become quite popular in recent times as the amount of space for car parking is quite limited particularly in urban areas of Al Mirfa. The parking industry is spurred by new construction. Since new construction has gradually increased in recent days, prospect for profitability in parking industry also increased. In line with the parking industry, washing segment has also become an effective money-making opportunities for businesses. It is to be stated that as there are no such washing shops present in Al Mirfa city, thus there will be no direct competition for ABC Corp in that area to provide washing and parking services to the customers. These are the key marketing influence or factors that have been considered for staring the business. Mission The mission of the business is to become the first choice for customers for taking the parking and washing services in Al Mirfa and to achieve sustainable development. ABC Corp is dedicated to provide the customers with crucial parking and washing experience. It will focus upon delivering deliberate efforts toward the accomplishment of gaining greater customer satisfaction and value while providing employees with outstanding recompense. Goals and Objectives The key business objectives of ABC Corp are: To be observed as premium parking and washing service business in Al Mirfa To maintain a high profit margin To maintain a gradual and steady growth in profit To expand the business in different locations within five years of business operation Organisational Strategy In Al Mirfa, there pertains the occurrence of numerous festivals such as â€Å"

Legalization of Marijuana Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Legalization of Marijuana - Research Paper Example The economic feasibility of decriminalizing marijuana has become a much-discussed subject in recent years. The federal government presently spends a lot of capital on law enforcement to combat distributors and producers of drugs. By legalizing drugs this could eradicate much of the profit, bloodshed and corruption of that trade. If legalizing drugs is to have a positive effect on the crime rate, drugs must be made both inexpensive and available. Studies have repetitively suggested that prohibiting marijuana in the U.S. has not shown to be efficient or effective. According to the Drug Policy Alliance, â€Å"U.S. federal, state and local governments have spent hundreds of billions of dollars trying to make America ‘drug-free.’ Yet heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine and other illicit drugs are cheaper, purer and easier to get than ever before. (â€Å"England,† 2006) According to a report in The Economist (Case for Legalization, 2001), concerns that a growing drug-usin g and dependent population would emerge if marijuana was made more available are false. Although the magazine acknowledges that the price of the drug is artificially high, it attributes this to the difficulties involved in circumventing the law. The authors of this report indicate that it is only because of the high cost and the difficulty to obtain it that more individuals have not experimented with it. Instead, they become addicted, either physically or psychologically, to other, often more harmful yet legal substances such as prescription medications or alcohol. To support their argument in favor of legalization even should the numbers of suspected users rise, the Economist article (Case for Legalization, 2001) draws on the theories of John Stuart Mill. Mill’s ideas were founded on the concept that adult citizens should have the right to make their own choices regarding whether or not to participate in activity as long as it does no harm to others. This is a founding theor y that has been mostly ignored in decisions made regarding alcohol and tobacco, both of which have proven to directly cause significant harm to innocent others, but has not been ignored regarding Class C substances such as marijuana. However, the arguments that more people would become regular users of the substance are unfounded. In addition to the fallacies of the anti-legalization side regarding increased use, the damage perpetrated on those involved with marijuana far outweighs the benefits achieved by current legislation and yet continues to exist. Poor countries where the drug is produced are quickly being overrun by criminals and thugs, people who make breaking the law on numerous levels. Because production and exportation is considered a criminal activity, the actual criminals are finding success rather than defeat. Individuals within the rich countries who buy the drugs are often otherwise productive members of society. Smoking marijuana, for medical or other reasons, is of ten their only ‘crime’ yet they face a no tolerance policy that places them in prison, destroys their chances to continue being the productive people they were before and irreparably harms them in many other ways. Under legalization, governments would be able to standardize the quality, regulate the ages

New Owner and Existing Business Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

New Owner and Existing Business - Case Study Example Although Anna was happy that this bargain will save her the costs of setting up a new business, legal proceedings, location, customers and suppliers but what she did not take into consideration were the risks and challenges of buying a business that is losing its pace. It is difficult to revive the image of a business that is already declining especially in relation to the customers who have switched to a better designer as well as suppliers who are enjoying the better relationship with others in the industry. Anna should have also considered the fact that obtaining loyalty and adaptability from existing business’s employees is a challenge. The financial and economic side of the existing business could pose threat because before buying Anna did not examine the details of the mentioned and trusted only on her abilities. Moreover, Anna should have given a deep look into the history of the existing business dealings with the stakeholders and ensured its good reputation. 2) It is believed that if a person has strong dreams and the ability and motivation to turn them into reality, no hurdle can suppress his powers. Same applies to entrepreneurs. It is a common trait of entrepreneurs that with their vision and constant enthusiasm, they can take a business to high levels of success. S Anil Kumar, S.C.Poornima, Mini K.Abraham, K.Jayashree (2003) states that entrepreneurs are intuitive and highly motivated from inside, they have a strong will and determination to achieve their goals. Shane Greenstein (2011) says that entrepreneurs are visionary, exceptionally energetic and have strong willpower. They know what their weaknesses are and ways to get over them. Anna bought the existing business because she knew that her powerful ideas and efforts could really make this business a big hit in the market despite the fact that she had not had good managerial skills. Anna did not let this weakness of her come in the way of her success. She knew that soft skills  could be learned at any point in life but the characteristics of being visionary and enthusiastic are permanently embedded in her personality and nothing can beat them.

Principles of personal devlpment Essay Example for Free

Principles of personal devlpment Essay Data protection act Freedom of information act 1995 Aii) Human rights act Disability discrimination act 1995 Aiii) Human rights act Control of substances hazardous to health regulations 2002 Aiv) Care standards act 2000 Code of practice Av) Safeguarding vulnerable adults groups act 2006 Policies and procedures Avi) A PDP is a personal development plan and is done between you and your manager. They will record all information about your learning and development needs in work. Things like targets, agreed objectives and activities to meet them and standards that are required. These all build your own appraisal. Avii) Carers, members of staff that work with you. The individuals you care for and their family Supervisor, manager. Task B Case study Bi) Jenna must make sure that she respects other people’s beliefs even though they may be different to her own. She must go about this in a non-judgmental way. She should also read through people’s care plans to gain better knowledge of them and their needs. I also think Jenna should put her own beliefs to one side and then discuss with her boss any issues she may have. It is essential for carers to respect each and every individual as an individual, not letting anything affect this. Maybe she should also look back on how she has spoken to the service user and make sure she doesn’t come across as rude or nasty in the future. Bii) It is very important to reflect on your work activities as it’s a very good way to develop skills and make sure you understand everything. It will also give you chance to plan how you are going to behave if the situation happens again. You can make changes and improve the way you work, it is also very important to reflect on your own behaviour and see how it affects others. During these reflections it’s a very good time to find the help and support you may need to better the way you work. E. g. training sessions. When working in care it is important that you learn to think about your own practice in a constructive way. Reflection and evaluation should not undermine your confidence but you should use them in a constructive way to identify areas for improvement. Ci) Moving and handling course – training session Knowing how to safely move a resident e. g. hoist. Skills – risk assessment is needed for each person, which sling is safe etc. do they need a hoist. We need to know the risks because if the manoeuvre is not completed properly this can cause falls and accidents. Cii) During my senior training I received feedback during my senior training, on how to do peg feeds safely and effectively. My first time, I didn’t happen to flush enough water, so my assessor informed me of this, which then improved my skill as a senior to do my job role properly. I then had then knowledge and skills to improve my work role.

Effects of Technology on Music

Effects of Technology on Music Effects of Technology on Music Production and Distribution Introduction Technology has brought many advantageous opportunities to the music industry in the area of production and distribution. Besides popular and valuable instruments such as the electric guitar and the synthesizer, technology has brought us new production equipments such as high-fidelity microphones, re-mastering equipments and CD-ROMs that provide us with a crystal clear sound of the recording. The development of these equipments has allowed the audience to experience a higher quality of sound coming from both live concerts and recordings. Easiness of transportation that came along with the technological developments in the sector, has allowed the record labels to distribute music all around the world. During the 1950s turbojet engines were cleared for civilian use, and with new civil jet-engine cargo aircraft distribution of almost any item became easier and faster than ever before. The evolution of the computer and the Internet was also a great distribution advantage for the music industry and should not be underestimated. New sound formats, such as the MP3, have made music distribution easier. Companies could now provide selling licenses to companies that would allow users to download certain songs from the Internet at a very high speed. The music industry also got many opportunities for advertisements since they were now not limited to billboards, TV and radio. Many companies can now promote their records by playing a preview for the user, on certain websites. Music Production Recording equipments were mostly used after the 1920s. These electronic devices were very hard to find and also very expensive. 1950s was when electronic equipment became easier to obtain and also became relatively cheaper. Not only that, they were also better in quality of recording and reproduction when compared to those devices used during the 1920s. By this time there were a lot of studios that were in demand for more electronic recording equipment. With the development of electronic equipments by engineers and inventors (such as Raymond Scott, who was an American composer and inventor who invented recording equipments and electronic instruments), studios started to buy these relatively cheap instruments. With these new equipments, studios were able to re-master previous recordings (mostly classical and jazz) to produce a more crystal-clear sound. However re-mastering was not the only feature of these equipments. Studios (sometimes individual labels) and bigger recording compani es (labels) started to record more and more music using these equipments and then sold them to the audience. Also during this time, along with the development of new instruments, new genres started to form. Consequently more and more label companies were formed and companies were categorized according to the genre they produced and sold. Slowly by slowly, label companies started to compete with each other and signed contracts with artists to record more songs to sell. This competition between labels made popular music a commodity and in time, these music equipments were started to be used for music sampling or element extraction which in some cases led to lawsuits. The developments in music production equipments have led to companies wanting to make more and more profit by recording and distributing their records. With these developments, companies started to look for new ways of distribution that could allow them to distribute their records at a global scale. The general development in technology has worked to their advantage. Music Distribution 1. Transportation Transportation before the evolution of civil aircraft was very hard and took a very long time. Mostly, merchandises were transported with ships and trains. However, during the 1950s, civil aircraft manufacturers were allowed to use turbojet engines for their aircraft. With these engines, new passenger and cargo aircraft were able to travel at a higher speed. New maritime technologies that were developed around the 1950s (such as the bulbous bow, used to decrease drag) allowed transportation ships to travel at (relatively) very high velocities. These developments made air cargo and ship transportation the primary platforms for transporting merchandises. Using these developments, record companies started to use air cargo and ships to distribute their records to all around the world very quickly. 2. Computers and The Internet Recordings were stored mostly in WAV file formats in computers. WAV is a waveform file format and its almost the exact replica of a high-quality CD recording. However, WAV files are very big in size. Transferring these formats over the internet would take a very long time. Even now, when we have access to high-speed internet, downloading a 50MB file takes about a minute. Back in the 90s, most people used the standard dial-up connection (which was very slow, 56 kbps). Downloading a 50MB file with a dial-up connection would take up to 4 hours, considering that the file does not contain any invaluable (overhead) data[1]. The MP3 file format compresses the original sound recording and provides us with a file that is very small in size but high in sound quality. This decrease in file size made the MP3 files very popular amongst internet users because they are very accessible and they can download them very quickly. With these developments, label companies wanted to take advantage of this increase in accessibility and consequently gave (sold) licenses to distributing companies. Currently, iTunes and many other sites allow users to download MP3 music files for a certain price. With this accessibility, both the marketing (distributing companies) and the label companies make profit from selling recordings. Also, besides these, the internet has provided label companies many opportunities to advertise/promote their records. With the increasing number of websites, labels can advertise their records on certain websites, or promote their records in YouTube, etc. Certain websites play previews of records or single recordings for users when they enter the website. Unlike local billboards and TV/Radio commercials/promotions, label companies can extend their range to a global scale. Many local and global popular music groups and labels have official accounts on YouTube, Facebook and MySpace. They can simply promote their records on these sites by providing users with full records or previews. These types of social websites are also a great way for labels and individual groups to promote their items. Therefore, this global increase in label advertising opportunities and thus increase in advertising itself, also allowed the sales to increase in time and bring label companies to a higher position. 3. Technological Accessibility Nowadays, almost everyone owns either an iPod or a portable CD-player. Label companies can distribute records in several different formats. For example, some of these formats may be CD-ROMs, online MP3 files, tapes, etc. With the accessibility to electronic portable CD/Tape players, computers, and MP3 players, many users of these different platforms can buy records from a certain label company. The main label will have a higher rate of sales when they distribute for more than one platform. When we compare today with earlier days, where the gramophone was in use, we can say that the gramophone was the only music reproduction platform and not everyone had access to it. Thus the increase in accessibility and platforms do increase profits for label companies. Conclusion Almost every development in technology, from aircrafts to ships and chips to the internet, has affected the music industry. As usual, these developments may be both in advantage or disadvantage to the music industry or label companies, however I have elaborated on the advantageous side of these developments. Record label companies have brought themselves to a high position using these technological developments that helped them mass produce and distribute their records at a global scale. Unfortunately, popular music labels only use this technology to increase the amount of yearly profits instead of using it to create art. Label companies now use â€Å"template† music, where only certain elements of music can be changed to make it look individual (pseudo-individualization)[2]. Looking at these general actions of record companies, I can say that their sole purpose is to make profit by marketing music. Considering the technological developments and their consequences, these developments have been to the advantage of label companies. Bibliography Allan, David. On Popular Music in Advertising. Popular Musicology Online. Web. 13 Oct. 2009. . Bray, Patrick J. Learning about bulbous bows. Martins Marine Engineering Page. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. . Holmes, Thomas B. Electronic and Experimental Music Pioneers in Technology and Composition. New York: Routledge, 2002. Print. The Jet Engine. History Learning Site. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. . Raymond Scott: Biography. Official Raymond Scott Website: RaymondScott.com. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. . Shuker, Roy. Understanding Popular Music. New York: Routledge, 2001. Print. Tschmuck, Peter. Creativity and Innovation in the Music Industry. New York: Springer, 2006. Print. Ulucay, Tolga. Difference Between .mp3 and .wav. EzineArticles. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. . [1] Download time calculator: [2] Allan, David. On Popular Music in Advertising.Popular Musicology Online. Web. 13 Oct. 2009. .

Social Conflict and Rebellion in Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin in the S

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lorraine Hansberry's play, A Raisin in the Sun, relates the story of a working-class African-American family with dreams. They are willing to rebel against the position that society has forced on them because of their race and class in order to fulfill their dreams. Walter Younger is a chauffeur who "can find no peace with that part of society which seems to permit him and no entry into that which has willfully excluded him" (Willie Loman 23). He wants to rise into wealth and live as his employer, Mr. Arnold, does. Walter feels as if he is going crazy at times. He tells Mama, "sometimes it's like I can see the future stretched out in front of me-just plain as day.... Hanging over there at the edge of my days. Just waiting for me- a big looming blank space-full of nothing.... But it don't have to be" (73-4). James Draper explains Walter's inability to act out in his work " Black Literature Criticisms," saying: The American ghetto hero may give up and contemplate his misery in rose-colored bars to the melodies of hypnotic saxophones, but revolution seems alien to him in his circumstances (America), and it is easier to dream of personal wealth than of a communal state wherein universal dignity is supposed to be corollary. Yet his position in time and space does allow for one other alternative: he may take his place on any one of a number of frontiers of challenge. Challenges (such as helping to break down restricted neighborhoods) which are admittedly limited because they most certainly do not threaten the basic social order. (Draper 214) Walter's sister, Beneatha, who is studying at a local university to be a doctor, fights many of her own social battles. At college, she finds "a place, as her family cannot, among othe... ...oday by minority families.    Works Cited and Consulted: Domina, Lynn. Understanding A Raisin In The Sun.   Conneticut.  Ã‚   Greenwood Press, 1998. Draper, James P. Black Literature Criticisms. Detroit: Gale Research Incorporated, 1992. Hansberry, Lorraine.   A Raisin in the Sun.   New York:   Signet, 1988. Hansberry, Lorraine. "An Author's Reflections: . Willie Loman, Walter Younger, And He Who Must Live" The Village Voice - Aug 12, 1959. Web 23 May 2015 https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1299&dat=19590812&id=09pHAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NYwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6584,6415280&hl=en Rose, Philip. "YOU CAN'T DO THAT ON BROADWAY: 'A Raisin in the Sun' and Other Theatrical Improbabilities" Limelight Editions; 1st edition. 2004 Wilkerson, Margaret B. "The Sighted Eyes and Feeling Heart of Lorraine Hansberry." Black American Literature Forum 17.1 (1983): 8-13. Social Conflict and Rebellion in Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the S   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lorraine Hansberry's play, A Raisin in the Sun, relates the story of a working-class African-American family with dreams. They are willing to rebel against the position that society has forced on them because of their race and class in order to fulfill their dreams. Walter Younger is a chauffeur who "can find no peace with that part of society which seems to permit him and no entry into that which has willfully excluded him" (Willie Loman 23). He wants to rise into wealth and live as his employer, Mr. Arnold, does. Walter feels as if he is going crazy at times. He tells Mama, "sometimes it's like I can see the future stretched out in front of me-just plain as day.... Hanging over there at the edge of my days. Just waiting for me- a big looming blank space-full of nothing.... But it don't have to be" (73-4). James Draper explains Walter's inability to act out in his work " Black Literature Criticisms," saying: The American ghetto hero may give up and contemplate his misery in rose-colored bars to the melodies of hypnotic saxophones, but revolution seems alien to him in his circumstances (America), and it is easier to dream of personal wealth than of a communal state wherein universal dignity is supposed to be corollary. Yet his position in time and space does allow for one other alternative: he may take his place on any one of a number of frontiers of challenge. Challenges (such as helping to break down restricted neighborhoods) which are admittedly limited because they most certainly do not threaten the basic social order. (Draper 214) Walter's sister, Beneatha, who is studying at a local university to be a doctor, fights many of her own social battles. At college, she finds "a place, as her family cannot, among othe... ...oday by minority families.    Works Cited and Consulted: Domina, Lynn. Understanding A Raisin In The Sun.   Conneticut.  Ã‚   Greenwood Press, 1998. Draper, James P. Black Literature Criticisms. Detroit: Gale Research Incorporated, 1992. Hansberry, Lorraine.   A Raisin in the Sun.   New York:   Signet, 1988. Hansberry, Lorraine. "An Author's Reflections: . Willie Loman, Walter Younger, And He Who Must Live" The Village Voice - Aug 12, 1959. Web 23 May 2015 https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1299&dat=19590812&id=09pHAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NYwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6584,6415280&hl=en Rose, Philip. "YOU CAN'T DO THAT ON BROADWAY: 'A Raisin in the Sun' and Other Theatrical Improbabilities" Limelight Editions; 1st edition. 2004 Wilkerson, Margaret B. "The Sighted Eyes and Feeling Heart of Lorraine Hansberry." Black American Literature Forum 17.1 (1983): 8-13.

The Effectiveness of the International Criminal Court Essay example --

There is a close relationship between human rights and criminal law. The scope of my paper will surround human rights and the International Criminal Court (ICC) in addition to human rights and international crimes. International criminal justice in this context speaks to those interested in prosecuting against the background of international human rights and humanitarian norms. The use of criminal law has many positive effects and pursues many goals that are worth considering. For example, deterrence, accountability and punishment are important principles that will be discussed in the context of human rights. Is the International Criminal Court an effective method to promote and protect human rights internationally? If so, why and how? My thesis is that the International Criminal Court is an effective mechanism for the promotion and protection of human rights internationally because, by embodying the principles of criminal responsibility, it brings forth the notion of the individual as an agent in human rights and, by doing so, upholds the progressive shift that human rights conventions have developed. Criminal responsibility for human rights violations is important given that, by categorizing certain human rights violations as such, it allows for a progressive move internationally against those violations. International criminal law is an important tool that those advocating for human rights can use. The continued use of criminal law internationally, including the adoption of the ICC in 2002, will allow for a shift in legal norms resulting an increase in human rights. In this way, criminal responsibility allows for the education of peoples around the world by making an example of certain cases and displays the im portance of ... ...l Criminal Justice, 3 (2005): 608-620. Lynn Sellers Bickley, â€Å"U.S. Resistance to the International Criminal Court: Is the Sword Mightier than the Law?† Emory International Law Review, 14 (2000): 214-276. International Criminal Court. 2013. Accessed online on November 5, 2013: http://www.icc-cpi.int/EN_Menus/icc/Pages/default.aspx. Payam Akhavan, â€Å"The Rise, and Fall, and Rise, of International Criminal Justice,† Journal of International Criminal Justice, 11:3 (2013): pp. 527-536. Rebecca Young, â€Å"Internationally Recognized Human Rights Before the International Criminal Court,† International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 60 (2011):189-208. Hans-Peter Gasser, â€Å"The Changing Relationship between International Criminal Law, Human Rights Law and Humanitarian Law,† The Legal Regime of the ICC: Essays in Honour of Prof. I.P. Blishchenko (2009) pp. 1111-1117.

Review of Douglas E. Winter’s Thrilling Novel, Run Essay -- Run

Review of Douglas E. Winter’s Thrilling Novel, Run If you’re in the market for a good thriller, the kind that you don’t put down, the kind that releases its grip on you once it’s through, look no further. Run grabbed my attention with its opening sentence and I found myself slipping into that helpless, blissful state of complete submission to the book, confident I was in the hands of a master storyteller. I chose to review this book primarily because none of my friends had heard of it, despite its New York Times-bestseller status and cover, which is decorated with blurbs from literary illuminati as they gasp for superlatives in attempts to describe the story’s pace, which is breathless, to be sure. This is Winter’s debut novel (having previously collaborated with Clive Barker), and we are in the presence of an exciting new talent. The novel is told from the first-person perspective of Burdon Lane, an arms dealer of the less-than-legal variety, who finds himself in a classic noir predicament where the only person he can trust is himself, and only then ...

Coursework assignment: Jack the Ripper

1. Source A is part of a newspaper article describing the murder of Martha Tabram and Polly Nicholls. From source A I can learn that there have been two murders in London within a month of each other, I can also learn that Polly Nicholls and the other victim, Martha Tabram, were very poor. Source A also tells us that the murderer did not kill the women for financial gain as there was no proof of stealing, the killer had used too much force to kill these women and this suggests that the killer was not of stable mind. Source A is part of an article in the East End Observer describing the murders of Martha Tabram and Polly Nicholls and it was written within a month of the murders, it suggests that the murderer was not of stable mind. Source B is part of the Coroner's report of the death of Polly Nicholls and it suggests that the killer had a good knowledge of the human body. Source C is the report of Dr Frederick Blackwell on the body of Elizabeth Stride and its gives a detailed description of the victims body. Source A supports Source C by saying that the victims have been of the poorest of the poor whilst Source C implies that the victim, Elizabeth Stride, was poor as there was ‘no money on the body. ‘ However Source A is different to Source C as it says that the killer used ‘extraordinary violence' to murder the women where as Source C says that there was only one incision on the body and it cut the windpipe ‘completely in two meaning that no force was used'. Source C also says that the appearance of the face was calm meaning there was no force used against the victim and it was a quick kill. Source A states that the murders were a work of a ‘demented being' as so much effort was used to kill the victims but the evidence from Source C suggest that the killer had a knowledge of how to kill a person quickly as it says that only one incision was found on the victim and it rendered them dead. Source B says the killer had ‘anatomical skill and knowledge' the wounds inflicted on the victim were in specific places that would lead to certain organs, additionally Source C also suggests that the killer had a good understanding of the human body as it mentions that only one wound was inflicted on the victim and it was enough to kill her and this shows that Source B supports Source C. Source B also supports Source C by saying the killer used a knife as a weapon to kill the victims and Source C implies that the killer used a knife as an incision is caused by a knife or sharp object. However Source B is different from Source C as all the statements in this are opinions whereas all the statements of Source C are facts and are given by a doctor who knows what he is seeing. Source B is also trying to decipher the identity of the victim where as Source is just a description of the body 3. Source E is Part of an article published in a local newspaper after the murders of Polly Nicholls and Annie Chapman. It tells us of how an informant warned police officers that the security of the streets should be improved otherwise murders would ensue. It also tells us a bit about the geography of White Chapel. This source implies that the security of the streets in White Chapel was really poor as there were crimes going on in every street and people had predicted that there would be murders happening in the town if the quality of the police force was not increased. It also tells us that there were crimes going on such as ‘ruffianism' (violent lawless behavior), and although the police were told of it they did nothing to prevent or stop these crimes. This Source also tells us about the way White Chapel is built, with the main roads connected by narrow alleyways, meaning that the killer could easily slide into an alley if he heard or saw the police approaching. However the Source does not tell us who the informant is; implying that the killer had to be a police to hide his identity because otherwise he would have been fired from his job. As a result of not knowing the identity of the killer, we cannot tell if the Source is reliable or not. But as the source was a newspaper article, its main job was to inform people of the news accurately, however the newspapers also had to be sold meaning that the article evidence given by the informant could have stretched to make the article more interesting. Source D is the evidence of Elizabeth Long at the inquest into the death of Annie Chapman; she was describing the man seen talking to Annie before she was killed. It tells about the appearance of the man seen with Annie Chapman before she was killed. It says that the man was a foreigner and that he was of a ‘shabby genteel'. The description given by the eye-witness is very detailed and it describes a foreigner. During the time that the murders happened White chapel was a dirty and polluted place, people could even see their own hands in front of their faces in the dark. The time at which Miss Long said she say the man was at 5. 30 am and it was still pretty dark at that time which leads me to believe that this source is not very reliable. This however shows me that the police had trouble capturing the killer because of all the false eye-witness accounts given to them by the public, they could not interpret which ones were true and which were not and the killer took advantage of this. Source D is not very reliable as there is no way that Miss. Long could have made out the appearance of the man in such detail, it is a make belief story as at the time of which the account was given many people presumed that the killer was a foreigner, therefore Miss. Long gave the description of one. 4. The police made use of many methods to try and catch the killer but they were all to no avail. One of the things that the police was to circulate leaflets around to the general public. Source F is the leaflet distributed to over 80,000 households in hopes of catching the murderer. The leaflet contains dates of the first four murders (starting from Polly Nicholls) and it is suggesting that the killer lives in Whitechapel. It is asking for people to come forward and report anybody suspicious. This is a good idea as it would save the police from interviewing everyone in Whitechapel but the public did help the police as they came up with too many false witnesses and they gave information on people who acted the slightest unusual. Source G is part of a letter from the Home Secretary to the mile end vigilance committee on 17 September 1888. The Home Secretary states that offering a reward would mean people would make false accusations on innocent people just for the money. The police were asking permission to offer reward to anyone who gives information on the killer but they were declined. This would have been a good idea as they would get a list of suspects but the public would give information on anyone just to get the money and this would leave the police in a bigger state of confusion. The police also requested for 100 more men both uniformed and plain clothed so there can more of a chance to catch the killer. This was definitely a good idea as there were more men patrolling the area and there were more chances of spotting the killer. However this method proved to be insufficient as the killer was not seen the police, both uniformed and plain clothed. The metropolitan police sent a private and confidential letter to Col turner asking him to provide trained bloodhounds that could track the scent of the victim's blood in order to find the killer. This was a very good idea and it is still used today to track down suspects but this also failed to catch the notorious Whitechapel, murderer. Although this did prove that the killer murdered his victims rather stealthily as to not get any blood on himself. The police also put their time and effort into interviewing over a thousand lodgers in the area of Whitechapel. This does not seem like a good idea as all the murders had taken place on the weekend or on a holiday suggesting that the killer was from out of town or that he had a job meaning that he would have his own house. One of the stranger things the police did was use silent boots. There logic was that the killer would here the police man approach and so the killer would not run away. This obviously did not help the police catch the killer. These boots also cause pain to the officers as they were uncomfortable. Autopsies were carried out and police photographed each scene. Detailed interviews were conducted throughout the area and existing mental patients and those with a history of violence were investigated. Also the police offered pardons to accomplices willing to come forward with information. The police tried almost everything they could to try and catch the killer during the murders but the facilities that police had were just not enough and most of the time criminals were caught red handed or they would most likely escape. 5. The Whitechapel murders were something that the police have never experienced, they do not know of killing without reason or serial killing. As you have seen, the police tried various methods to try and catch the murderer but they were all a failure and that is due to the following reasons. The killer was a mad-man. This is what everybody believed in White chapel, that someone who kills for his own pleasure has to be foaming at the mouth, this was the perceived of Jack the ripper. He was seen as a man who could not keep his emotions in check and who was a basic raving lunatic. However through modern serial killings we have found that most serial killers look outwardly normal and sane even though they are mad on the inside. The killer could have had an ordinary day-light life with maybe even a family and by night time he could have set out to kill. This was not known at the time so people were looking out for mad person who was swinging a knife at every prostitute and because of this lunatics all over White chapel were examined but to no avail. This also meant that if the killer had family and friends they would never suspect him as he would not have filled the description of a lunatic. The killer on the other hand was a very confident person as he no doubt believed he would never be caught so he never hid the bodies and murdered in daring places, such as ten minutes away from the police station. The killer was also very artful as source H states that ‘not a trace is left' of the killer at the crime scene. The victims of the killer had one thing in common: heavy drinking. They were known for drinking and wondering around the streets, the first victim's, Polly Nicholls, marriage broke down as a cause of her heavy drinking. Polly Nicholls was a sad woman who made a living from prostitution. The second victim, Annie Chapman, was also a separated wife who suffered from alcoholism and she was also homeless. The next victim, Elizabeth Stride, was also separated from her husband and used prostitution as a source of a living. The fourth victim, Catherine Eddowes, was also a heavy drinker, a separated wife and a prostitute. The fifth and final victim was Mary Jane Kelly and she was a young prostitute whose husband had died. All these victims are prostitutes and almost all were heavy drinkers meaning they were all exceptionally easy targets as they would have to go in dark places with men who they were strangers with and when they were drunk they were disoriented and did not know what was going on. They would also do anything for a drink meaning they would meet up with men at night just because he promised a drink. The victims were also picked at random except for the fact that they were prostitutes so the police could not find a pattern in the victims and there were too many prostitutes in White chapel to protect them all. Whitechapel was a densely populated area in one of the poorest districts in London. There were many slaughterhouses and such in those parts of London, and so it wasn't odd for men to walk around in dirty and even blood stained clothes. Furthermore, the fact that there were so many narrow alleys and thoroughfares may have made the Ripper's escape easier. As source E tells us that the alley ways were ‘dark' and ‘narrow'. The area of Whitechapel had many penniless, homeless and nameless people drifting in and out of its streets, so it was difficult to keep the track, monitor the streets and the police also had to deal with the vigilante behaviour that erupted as a result of the murders. The eyewitnesses that came forward were almost all very inaccurate except for the police officers. In eye-witness account of Elizabeth Long (source D), a description of a man she sees talking to Annie Chapman is given but it is not very detailed and it only describes his attire and not his facial features. Elizebeth Long is also not sure about the things she sae as she says: ‘as well as I could make out', ‘I think' and ‘I cannot be sure'. Also, the time at which she saw the man, it was dark and smog covered the whole of White chapel so therefore she could not have seen clearly and her evidence is most likely made up. These sort of eye-witness accounts lead the police to a dead end and their time is wasted. The chance of the police catching any criminal in those days would drastically drop if they didn't catch him in the act. The investigative tools the police had at the time did not include fingerprinting, forensic evidence and DNA. The police tried almost everything they could and they made requests that would help catch the killer (even though some of them were denied). The police was not used to the concept of killing without a motive and this confused the police as to what course of action they should take. Although the police did make some mistakes such as when the writing on the wall was erased before it could be photographed and they let Catherine Eddowes out of jail at 1. 00 am when they clearly knew about the dangerous times. The police were not to blame for the ripper murders as they had never experienced anything like it and they did whatever they could to try and catch the killer. The public did not help the police in the investigation by giving false witnesses and accusations. The layout of White chapel was in such a way that it would be extremely easy for the ripper to escape.

Defense Attorneys Essay

Discuss the role of defense attorney’s in the courtroom workgroup. A defense attorney is a lawyer who provides legal representation for a person who has been arrested and charged for breaking the law or when an individual been served with a lawsuit. For example, when another individual filing the lawsuit goes after money for damages or justifiable relief of some sort. A very small portion of lawyers actually discuss that they work as criminal defense attorneys. This is because of the negative labeling assigned to the profession by American Social Forces. However defense attorneys are very important in the criminal justice system. They work to protect the innocent from being falsely convicted, and they work to protect the constitutional rights of all defendants. When a criminal defendant cannot afford to pay for the services of a private legal attorney, the United States Supreme Court requires that a defense attorney be appointed to represent the defendant. This expense is covered by taxpayers. There are three major categories of defense attorneys to help assist criminal defendants: * Private attorneys usually referred to as retained counsel.

Social Structure of the Society

?MINISTERY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS Belarus State Economic University REFERAT: â€Å"SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE SOCIETY† Minsk 2008 What is social structure of the society? Any object has its structure. As the noun â€Å"structure† is rendered as â€Å", , †, structure is defined as functional interdependence of elements constituting the carcass of an object. The society has social structure. The concept of social structure was pioneered by G. Simmel, then developed by K. Marx, E. Durkheim but became most known due to T. Parsons who created structural functionalism. There are various approaches to studying social structure of the society but they didn’t avoid influence of structural functionalism in any way. Due to the functionalist perspective, social structure is the carcass of a social whole (society or its part) the elements of which are invariable in time, interdependent of each other and largely determine the functioning of the whole in general and its members in particular. The focus is made on both interdependence – it’s like a house: take some brick off the wall and the whole building may ruin, and function – take a log: it can be burnt to get warm or used as construction material to build a house. In other words, structural functionalism analyzes parts of the society in terms of their purpose within the whole. It’s clear that social structures of ancient and modern societies differ from each other. This difference is caused by diachronic changes taking place in the society: although the structure presents a stable carcass, it is stable or invariable only for a definite period of time, and historically it changes. Social structure is qualitative certainty of the society which means that change in structure leads to radical, qualitative change in the society. Structure ensures stability required for the functioning of associated social elements which accumulate quantitative changes up till the moment when they turn to quality, and a need for structural changes in the social object rises. For instance, development of the bourgeoisie and proletariat as classes and formation of new relations of production lead to a bourgeoisie revolution and change of the socio-economic system. Social structure is characterized by the following main attributes: hierarchy – vertical and horizontal arrangement of structural elements which is based on their unequal access to authority, income, social prestige etc. interconnection of structural elements which is realized through exchange of resources, information, sharing values etc. ; differentiation into the smallest elements and their integration into the whole; flexibility, capacity to change so it is an important part of the management. Traditionally, theorists identify the following types of social structure: socio-demographic, socio-class, socio-ethnic, socio-professional, socio-confessional etc. No doubt, any social object has its structure. For instance, at analyzing a labour collective we may consider employees within the socio-professional structure: those who got secondary, vocational and higher education, scientific qualifications, representatives of various professions, specializations, their levels of qualification. The socio-demographic structure suggests analysis of employees according to the age and gender: the young up to 30, middle-aged, those of pre-pension and pension age, males and females. There are different types of social structure. A famous Russian theorist M. N. Rutkevich identifies three basic types. The first one characterizes the process of historical development of mankind, i. e. a global structure of human society consisting of nations, states and their various associations. The second type comprises relations between various spheres or subsystems of social life. The third type comprises relations between social groups and other communities of people. The last two types reflect some settled approaches to consider social structure. In social structures of the second type their elements are viewed as relatively independent subsystems or spheres of social life (politics, economy etc). Their number is a point for debate. For instance, G. Hegel and F. Engels spoke of politics, economy and family; modern theorists perceive four spheres: culture, politics, legislation and economy although they don’t deny that other spheres can also be seen in religion, science or in family. Anyway, less debated is a position of the Russian researcher A. I. Kravchenko who divides the society into economic, political, social and spiritual spheres. Economic sphere includes four types of activities – production, distribution, exchange and consumption. It provides eans for increasing the material welfare of the society: enterprises, banks, markets, money flows and the like that enables the society to use available resources (land, labour, capital and management) in order to produce the amount of goods and services sufficient enough to satisfy people’s essential needs in food, shelter and leisure. About 50% of the economically active population take part in the economic sphere as the young, old, disabled do not produce material wealth. But indirectly 100% of the population participate in the economic sphere as consumers of created goods and services. Political sphere includes the head of the state and the state bodies such as government and parliament, local bodies of power, the army, the police, taxation and customs bodies which together constitute the state and political parties which are not part of the state. Its objective is to realize the goals of the society: to ensure the social order, settle conflicts arisen between partners (employers, employees and trade unions), defend the state frontiers and sovereignty, impose new laws, collect taxes etc. But its main objective is to legalize ways of struggle for power and defend the power obtained by a particular class or group. The objective of political parties is to legally defend the diversified political interests of different, very often opposite, groups of the population. Spiritual sphere includes culture, science, religion and education and their artifacts such as monuments and establishments of culture, pieces of arts, research and learning institutions, temples and cathedrals, mass media etc. If science is aimed at discovering new knowledge in various spheres, education should translate this knowledge to the future generations in a most effective way, for schools and universities are built, new programs and teaching methods are worked out, qualified teachers are trained. Culture is designed to create values of arts, exhibit them in museums, galleries, libraries etc. Culture also comprises religion which is considered the pivot of spiritual culture in any society as it gives sense to human life and determines basic moral norms. Social sphere embraces classes, social layers, nations associated by their relations and interactions. The given sphere of the society is understood as narrow and wide. In its wide meaning the social sphere is a totality of organizations and establishments that are in charge of the population’s wealth; they are shops, transport means, communal and consumer services, establishments of catering, medicine, communication, leisure and recreation. Thus, as such the social sphere covers almost all classes and layers – the rich, the poor and the middle class. In its narrow meaning the social sphere is designed for the members of the society who are regarded as socially unprotected (pensioners, unemployed, with low incomes or with many children etc) and the establishments that provide their service, namely, the bodies of social security (including social insurance) of both local and national subordination. In this case, the social sphere is designed for the poorer layers of the population. There are other approaches as to the number of parts or spheres of the society but they are all united by a view that social subsystems cannot exist as isolated. They are arranged in a pattern of relationships that, together, make the system. The social naturally penetrates into the productive and managerial spheres since people of different nationalities, ages, sexes and confessions can work together at an enterprise, on the one hand. On the other hand, if the country’s economy doesn’t perform its main objective to satisfy the population with the sufficient amount of goods and services, the number of jobs doesn’t increase, there may arise negative consequences in the society. For instance, the money is short to pay wages and pensions, unemployment appears, the living standards of the socially unprotected layers are decreasing, crimes are increasing etc. In other words, success or recession in one sphere has a great influence on prosperity in the other one. The third type of social structure is best developed by structural functionalists who assert that structure arises out of face-to-face interactions of people. Interactions make up patterns which are independent of the particular individual, because patterns are determined by social norms and values of the given society. For instance, somebody needs money. He can earn it, but if in some society robbery or burglary is not disapproved of, he may rob someone to reach the purpose. So patterns exert a force which shapes behaviour and identity. That’s why T. Parsons and his supporters define social structure as the way in which the society is organized into predictable relationships, or invariable patterns of social interaction called institutions. Social structure does not concern itself with the people forming the society or their social organizations, neither does it study who are the people or organizations forming it, or what is the ultimate goal of their relations. Social structure deals rather with the very structure of their relations – how they are organized in a pattern of relationships, or institution. So due to structural functionlism, structural elements of the society are social institutions and social groupings; structural units are social norms and values. Social groupings and communities Social groupings are social groups, social classes and layers, communities, social organizations, social statuses and roles. A group is a number of people or things which we class together, so that they form a whole. In our minds we could group any assortment of people together. For instance, you could group together Phillip Kirkorov, your nearest relative, the person who sat opposite you last time you were on a bus, Santa Clause and a shop-assistant from the Hippo market in Serebryanka. But a social group, however, means more than just an assortment of people. There must be something to hold them together as a whole. To be a social group, people must: interact with one another, perceive themselves as a group. Social group is an assortment of people associated by a socially significant distinction, people who interact together in an orderly way and perceive themselves or perceived by others as a group. Any social group is characterized by a number of attributes: interaction within a group is realized on the basis of shared norms, values and expectations about one another’s behaviour; groups develop their own internal structure: kernel and periphery, norms, value, statuses and roles; they can be rigid and formal or loose and flexible; there is a sense of belonging, individuals identify with the group; outsiders are distinguished from members and treated differently; groups are formed for a purpose – specific or diffuse; eople in a group tend to be similar, and the more they participate, the more similar they become. There are a lot of classifications of social groups. The first one embraces statistical and real groups. A statistical group is an assortment of people differentiated by a definite characteristic that can be measured. For instance, citizens are people living in formal settlements called cities. A real group possesses a number of characteristics describing i ts immanent essence. So, citizens are people living in cities, who live an urban way of life with highly diversified labour (mainly industrial and information kinds) and leisure activities, with high professional and social mobility, high frequency of human contacts in formal communication etc. According to this definition, only a part of the statistical group of citizens comply with the criterion of being urbanites, or not everyone who lives in city can belong to the real group of citizens. Another type is a reference group as any group we use to evaluate ourselves, but it doesn’t necessarily mean we must belong to it. It is like a target group in the market: a target group of black BMW cars is composed of people with high income, of a certain age, males etc. David is a person with such characteristics but he doesn’t like BMWs. He prefers Volvos. The normative function of the reference group is to set and enforce standards of conduct and belief. Its comparison function is viewed as a standard by which people can measure themselves or others. For instance, we compare confessional groups to examine some features, let’s say, Jews and Protestants, and find out that Jews display 20% greater tolerance. So if you are a Jew, you’re perceived by others as a more tolerant person. Social groups can also be classified according to their size, character of organization, emotional depth, accomplished objective etc. According to size, groups can be small, middle-sized and large ones. Small social groups, normally small in number, are characterized by human interactions in the form of direct contacts like in families. The smallest groups are stable and more constraining, but offer more intimacy and individuality. As size increases, freedom increases, but intimacy declines and the emerging group structure tends to limit individuality. Contacts are frequent and intensive; members take each other into account as they group together on the basis of shared norms, values and expectations about one another’s behaviour. As more people are added to the group (up to 20), complexity increases, subdivisions appear. Middle-sized social groups are relatively stable communities of people working at the same enterprise or organization, members of a social association or those sharing one limited but large enough territory, for example, people living in one district, city or region. The first type is called labour-organizational groups, the second one – territorial groups. People are united into labour-organizational groups to accomplish a certain purpose or objective that determines its composition, structure and type of activities, interpersonal interaction and relations. Large social groups are stable numerous collections of people, who act together in socially significant situations in the context of the country or state, or their unions. They are classes, social layers, professional groups, ethnic groupings (nationalities, nations and races), demographic groupings (the young, the old, males and females) etc. With regard to all of them, a social group is a patrimonial, collective concept. People’s affiliation to a large group is determined by a number of socially significant distinctions such as class affiliation, demographic factors, form and character of social activities etc. In large social groups, interaction bears both direct and indirect character. According to the character of organization, groups are distinguished as formal and informal ones. Formal groups are collections of people whose activities are regulated by formal documents such as legislative norms, charters, instructions, registered rules, bans or permissions sanctioned by the society, organization etc. At performing some activities members of the formal group are in terms of subordination, or hierarchically structured submission. Such groups are academic groups, labour organizations, military units etc. Informal groups don’t have formally registered grounds for their existence. They are formed on the basis of common interests or values, respect, personal affection etc. which cohere individuals into more or less stable entities such as a group of friends, a musical band, Internet chatters etc. Behaviour of their members is regulated by special non-written laws and rules. In such groups membership is voluntary, and members may resign at any time. Due to emotional depth of interrelations within the group, primary and secondary groups are differentiated. A primary group is, as a rule, a small social group whose members share personal and enduring emotional relations which are established on the basis of direct contacts reflecting the members’ personal characteristics. The examples are a family, a group of friends, a research group etc. A secondary group is a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a special interest or activity. In such a group people’s ability to perform particular functions, not their personal qualities, is highlighted. This is the way that social organizations with their departments and job hierarchy are set up and function. The personality of any of its member is of very little significance for the organization. As roles in the secondary group are strictly fixed (John is a student, Mr. Brown is the dean), very often its members know too little about each other. Besides, in the social organization of an enterprise, both roles and ways of communication are fixed. If a student is in trouble, he can’t apply straight to the University rector but first to the tutor, dean or prorector, then to the rector. While studying human society sociologists are interested in larger groups of people at the meso – and macro-levels, or those ones called social communities. There are a lot of definitions of such a phenomenon but theorists agree that members of the community should possess a similar quality such as age, gender, job, nationality etc. and consider similarity as one of the main distinctions of the community. Examples are natural-historical communities like tribes, families, nationalities, nations and races; mass groups like crowds, TV audience etc. A more important distinction of the social community is social interaction between its members. Interactions may be more enduring that determines a long-term existence of communities such as nations, races, and less enduring that is typical for occasional communities such as crowds, lines, passengers etc. But even occasional community with weak ties has its patrimonial and specific distinctions, regulating collective behaviour. Besides similarity and social interaction, a social community also suggests that the actions undertaken by its members are oriented by expectations of behaviour of other individuals in the community. It encourages people’s deeper solidarity that forms a cohered group – a basic element of the society. Judging by it, a social community may be defined as natural or social grouping of people characterized by a common feature, more or less enduring social relations, goal attainment, common patterns of behaviour and speculation. A social class is also considered as a structural element of the society. Although approaches differ, in general the concept of a class is connected with people’s relation to the means of production and character of acquiring wealth under a market economy. The known examples of a class are the nobility, bourgeoisie and proletariat. In each class society there are fundamental and non-fundamental classes. Fundamental classes are distinguished by a dominating way to produce material wealth within the socio-economic system (feudal, capitalist etc), for instance, under capitalism its fundamental classes are the bourgeoisie and proletariat. Non-fundamental classes are available because the rests of the previous relations of production are still kept in the society or new ones are emerging. A social layer is an assortment of people who are distinguished by their social status and who perceive themselves cohered by this community. A social status is one’s position (place) in the social structure of the society connected with other positions by the system of rights and obligations. The status of a teacher has its meaning only with regard to a student, not to a passer-by or doctor. The teacher should translate knowledge to the student, check up how knowledge is learnt and assess it etc. The student should regularly attend lectures, prepare for seminars, pass credits and examinations in time etc. In other words, the teacher and the student enter into social relationships as representatives of two large social groups, as bearers of social statuses. Social status is often considered as the â€Å"standing†, the honour or prestige attached to one’s position in the society. In modern societies, occupation is usually thought of as the main dimension of status, but even in modern societies other memberships or affiliations (such as ethnic groups, religion, gender, voluntary associations, hobby) can have an influence. For instance, a doctor will have a higher status than a factory worker but in some societies a white Anglo-Saxon Protestant doctor will have a higher status than an immigrant doctor of minority religion. Every person can have several social positions, or statuses called by R. Merton a status set. Among them there must be the main status; it is a status used by the individual to identify himself or by other people to indentify a definite person. For males it is their occupation (a lawyer, banker, worker), for females it is a place of living (a housewife) but there exist other variants. It means that the main status is of relative character as it is not directly associated with gender, race or occupation. The main status is one that determines the person’s way and style of life, patterns of behaviour, friends etc. Sociologists differentiate between social and personal statuses: social status identifies the person’s position in the society which he occupies as a representative of a large social group (occupation, class, nationality, gender, age or religion); personal status is the person’s position in a small group identified by how the members of the group estimate and percieve him due to his personal qualities. Being a leader or outsider, winner or loser means to occupy a certain position in the system of interpersonal, not social relations. Statuses are also distinguished as ascribed and achieved ones. Ascribed status is a social status a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. For example, a person born into a wealthy family has a high ascribed status. Achieved status is a sociological term denoting a social position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts. Examples of achieved status are being an Olympic athelete, a criminal, or a teacher. Achieved statuses are distinguished from ascribed statuses by virtue of being earned. Most positions are a mixture of achievement and ascribment; for instance, a person who has achieved the status of being a doctor or lawyer in Western societies is more likely to have the ascribed status of being born into a wealthy family. The mentioned statuses are considered basic statuses which include kinship, demographic, economic, political and occupational statuses. There are also a number of non-basic statuses such as those of a passer-by, driver, reader, TV-watcher, witness of a road casualty etc. They are temporal positions and their rights and obligations are not registered as they are hardly fixed. No doubt, the status of a professor determines much in life of a certain person; as for his status of a patient, it does not. If a social status identifies a particular position of an individual in a given social system, a social role represents the way that he is expected to behave in a particular social situation. Each individual plays many roles in the society; in one situation he is a boss, in another – a friend, in the third – father etc. All roles that a person plays are called a role set. Roles are identified as ascribed if we are forced to play and as achieved if we choose to play them. The first is a role of a son or daughter in relations with a parent, the second – a subordinate with a boss. Roles have two further dimensions: the prescribed aspect of a role, or role expectations, and role performance. The prescribed element in any role provides a norm-based framework governing the way people are generally supposed to interact. People expect one conduct from a banker and quite another – from an unemployed person. Role performance is what a person eally performs within this framework. Each time a person who performs a certain role builds his behaviour according to the expectations of the social milieu. If his actual behaviour differs from what is expected, it means that conformity to culturally appropriate roles and socially supported norms is not created. Behaviour, which doesn’t correspond to the status, is not considered an appropriate role. F or instance, if somebody came into the classroom, introduced himself as a teacher but then started painting the wall or washing the windows, his behaviour is a role but not that of a teacher. In the society various social control mechanisms exist to restore conformity or to segregate the nonconforming individuals from the rest of society. These social control mechanisms range from sanctions imposed informally – for example, sneering and gossip – to the activities of certain formal organizations, like schools, prisons, and mental institutions. Social institutions Another structural element of the society is social institutions. These are not buildings, but organizations, or mechanisms of social structure, governing the behaviour of two or more people. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions. For example, the institution of the family and marriage, of religion etc. American sociologist Erving Goffman (1922-1982) asserts that an institution is a place, like a building, in which activity of a particular kind regularly goes on. He uses this term for somewhere that embraces everything that its inhabitants do – where they live, work, play, sleep, day in day out. Members of the society have a similar mental concept of right and wrong, order and relationships, and patterns of good (positive values). As the broadest organizers of individuals’ beliefs, drives and behaviours, social institutions evolved to address separate needs of the society, for instance, the military institution evolved out of the need for defense. Each society has a number of needs but those of fundamental character are only five. Consequently, there are five fundamental social institutions ensuring social needs in: procreation of the population (that of the family and marriage); social order and defense (the state, political institutions); getting means for existence (the production, economic institutions); translating knowledge, socialization of the growing-up enerations, training personnel (education in its broad meaning including science and culture); solving spiritual problems, looking for sense of life (religion). So social institutions can be defined as organized patterns of beliefs and behaviours centered on basic social needs, adapting to specific segment of the society in question. American so ciologist T. Veblen is the founding father of institutionalization as he was a first to give a detailed description of social institutions in his book, The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899). He showed that evolution of the society is a process of natural selection of social institutions which by their nature present habitual ways to react to stimuli created by external changes. Early mankind is known for promiscuity or non-regulated sex relations that could result in genetic degeneration. Gradually such relations began to be limited by bans. The first ban was that of incest, forbidding sex between kinship relatives, such as mother and son, brother and sister etc. The given ban is the first social norm, considered the most important in history. Later, other norms regulating sex relations appeared. People learnt to survive and adapt to life by organizing their relations with norms. Norms of family and marriage behaviour translated from generation to generation became collective habits, customs, traditions that regulated people’s way of life and their thinking. Those who broke such traditions (deviants) were punished (sanctioned). This is the way how the most ancient social institution of the family and marriage might have emerged. And this is the way why norms and values have become structural units of the society. There are three terms to be differentiated in the related area such as â€Å"institute†, â€Å"institution† and â€Å"institutionalization†. To institute something is to bring it into use, set it up, or establish it by practice. A father might speak of instituting some changes in his family, perhaps forcing the children to be respectful, and not giggle at his words. An institute may be something that has been set up, for example, an association of women calls itself the â€Å"Women’s Institute†. If institution is spoken about, it is meant a totality of customs or practices that was established by the members of a particular society, by God, or just an established and respected practice (with no reference to its origin). Institutions are used about parts of the society, not the whole. As a society is created by the interaction of people, they establish ways of interacting that are acceptable or unacceptable. When a way of behaviour is both emotionally satisfying and leads to rewards from others, it becomes institutionalized. The way by which behaviour, custom or practice is institutionalized, is called institutionalization. For instance, institutionalization of any science means working out various standards, laws, setting up research institutes, laboratories, faculties, departments at universities, also publishing textbooks, monographs and journals, training specialists in the area etc. Thus, the concept of a social institution defines an aggregate of people whose activities in a certain area are regulated with inflexible systems of social, legal or other controls by organizations originally created for beneficial purposes and intents. As any structure, it is presented by its structural elements although some sociologists argue against, defining them as attributes. Structural elements of the society’s fundamental institutions Institutions Fundamental roles Physical features Symbolic features Family and marriage Mother Father Child House Plot of land Furniture Rings Engagement Marriage ceremony Economy Employer Employee Seller Buyer Enterprise Office Shop Bank Money Securities Trade mark Marketing Politics Head of the state Member of parliament Law-maker Subject of law Public buildings and places Flag Constitution Hymn Law Religion Priest Parishioner Bishop Cathedral Church Chapel Christ Bible Confirmation Education Teacher Student Professor School University Textbook Qualification Diploma Degree At the same time fundamental institutions are divided into smaller units called non-fundamental institutions. For instance, economy can’t operate without such practices as production, distribution, market, management, accounting, etc. ; the institution of the family and marriage includes such practices as martenity, vendetta, sworn brotherhood etc. So non-fundamental institutions are social practices or customs, for example, vendetta or celibacy can be identified either as a tradition or settled practice. Both are right as the fundamental institution includes both traditions and practices. If the purpose of fundamental institutions is to satisfy the basic needs of the society, non-fundamental institutions perform specialized objectives, serve particular traditions or satisfy non-fundamental needs. For instance, a higher school as a social institution meets the social need in training highly qualified specialists. By its character of organization, institutions are subdivided into formal and informal ones. The activities of formal institutions are regulated by strictly settled directions such as law, charter, instructions etc. Formal institutions are often bureaucracies in which the functions of bureaucrats are impersonal, i. e. that their functions are performed independently of their personal qualities. In informal institutions playing a very important role in interpersonal interaction, their aims, methods, means to achieve objectives are not settled formally and not fixed in the charter. For instance, organizing their leisure time, teenagers follow their rules of game, or norms which allow them to solve conflicts. But these norms are fixed in public opinion, traditions or customs, in other words, in informal sanctions. Very often public opinion or custom is a more efficient means to control an individual’s behaviour than legislative laws or other formal sanctions. For instance, people prefer being punished by their formal leaders than being blamed by colleagues or friends. Both formal and informal institutions have functions. To function means to bring benefit. So, the function of a social institution is the benefit that it contributes to the society. In other words, the outcomes or end-products of the system, institution and the like are referred to as its function. If besides benefit there is damage or harm, such actions are referred to as dysfunction. For instance, the function of a higher education is to train highly qualified specialists. If the institution functions badly due to some circumstances (lack of personnel, poor teaching, or methodical and material basis), the society will not get specialists of the required level. It means that the institution dysfunctions. Functions and dysfunctions can be manifest if they are formally declared, perceived by everybody and obvious, and latent which are hidden, or not declared. To manifest functions of a secondary school those of getting literacy, enough knowledge to enter university, vocational training, learning basic values of the society may be referred to. Its latent functions are getting a definite social status which enables to become ranked higher than those who are illiterate, making stable friends etc. Functions and dysfunctions are of relative, not of absolute character. Each of them can have two forms – manifest and latent. In one and the same time both a function and dysfunction may be manifest for some members of the society and latent – for the other ones. For instance, some people consider important to obtain fundamental knowledge at university, others – to establish necessary links and relations. Latent functions differ from dysfunctions by that they don’t bring harm. They only show that the benefit from any institution (system etc) can be larger than it is declared. To sum it up, each of the institutions reflects a different aspect of the society. Each of them performs a different role in the society fostering spiritual, social, or educational development. On a larger scale, these organizations exemplify the links that bind a society together. BASIC CONCEPTS Achieved status – a social position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts. Ascribed status – a social position a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. Class – an assortment of people united by their relations to the means of production and character of acquiring wealth under a market economy. Dysfunction – bring harm. Flexibility – a capacity to change. Formal group – a collection of people whose activities are regulated by formal documents such as legislative norms, charters, instructions, egistered rules, bans or permissions sanctioned by the society, organization etc. Function – bring benefit. Informal group – a group formed on the basis of common interests or values, respect, personal affection etc. which cohere individuals into more or less stable entity. Institutionalization – the way by which behaviour, custom or practice is institutionalized. Large social group – a stable numerous collection of people who act together in socially significant situations in the context of the country or state, or their unions. Latent function – a function if it is not formally declared, perceived by people or obvious. Main status – a status used by an individual to identify himself or by other people to indentify a definite person. Manifest function – a function if it is formally declared, perceived by everybody and obvious. Middle-sized group – a relatively stable community of people who work at the same enterprise or organization, members of a social association or those sharing one limited but large enough territory. Personal status – a person’s position in a small group identified by how the members of the group estimate and percieve him due to his personal qualities. Prescribed element (role expectation) – what provides a norm-based framework governing the way people are generally supposed to interact. Primary group – a small social group whose members share personal and enduring emotional relationships which are established on the basis of direct contacts reflecting the members’ personal characteristics Real group – any group of people possessing a number of characteristics describing its immanent essence. Reference group – any group one can use to evaluate oneself, but it doesn’t necessarily mean one must belong to it. Role performance – what a person really performs within the norm-based framework. Role set – all roles that a person plays. Secondary group – a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a special interest or activity. Social community – a natural or social grouping of people characterized by a common feature, more or less enduring social relationships, goal attainment, common patterns of behaviour and speculation. Small group – a group normally small in number, characterized by human interactions in the form of direct contacts like in families. Social group – an assortment of people cohered by a socially significant distinction, people who interact together in an orderly way and perceive themselves or perceived by others as a group. Social institution – organized patterns of beliefs and behaviours centered on basic social needs, adapting to specific segment of the society; an organization, or mechanism of social structure, governing the behaviour of two or more individuals; a totality of customs or practices that was established by the members of a particular society, by God, or just an established and respected practice. Social layer – an assortment of people who are distinguished by their status and who perceive themselves cohered by this community. Social role – the way that a person is expected to behave in a particular social situation. Social status –a person’s position in the society which he occupies as a representative of a large social group. Social structure – the carcass of a social whole (society or its part) the elements of which are invariable in time, interdependent of each other and largely determine the functioning of the whole in general and its members in particular (functionalist perspective); the way in which the society is organized into predictable relationships, patterns of social interaction. Statistical group – a group of people differentiated by a definite characteristic that can be measured. Status set – the number of statuses which a person has or acquired. Structure – functional interdependence of elements constituting the carcass of an object. Additional literature 1. Blau P. Exchange and Power in Social Life. (3rd edition). – New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 1992. – 354 p. 2. Bourdeiu P. Logic of Practice. – Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990. – 382 p. 3. Coser L. The Functions of Social Conflict. – Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1956. – 188 p. 4. Durkheim E. The Division of Labour in Society. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1997. – 272 p. 5. Durkheim E. Suicide. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1951. – 345 p. 6. Sztompka P. Sociology in Action: The Theory of Social Decoding. – Oxford: Polity Press, 2001. – 415 p.